Wallace Stevens

Wallace Stevens (October 2, 1879 - August 2, 1955) was a major Modernist American poet. He was born in Reading, Pennsylvania, educated at Harvard University and then New York Law School, and spent most of his life working as a lawyer for the Hartford insurance company in Connecticut.

His best-known poems include "Anecdote of the Jar", "Disillusionment of Ten O'Clock", "The Emperor of Ice-Cream", "The Idea of Order at Key West", "Sunday Morning", "The Snow Man", and "Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird", all of which appear in his Collected Poems for which he won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in 1955.

Life and career
The son of a prosperous lawyer, Stevens attended Harvard as a non-degree special student, after which he moved to New York City and briefly worked as a journalist. He then attended New York Law School, graduating in 1903. On a trip back to Reading in 1904 Stevens met Elsie Viola Kachel (1886-1963, aka Elsie Moll), a young woman who had worked as a saleswoman, milliner, and stenographer. After a long courtship, he married her in 1909 over the objections of his parents, who considered her lower-class. As The New York Times reported in an article in 2009, "Nobody from his family attended the wedding, and Stevens never again visited or spoke to his parents during his father's lifetime". A daughter, Holly, was born in 1924. She later edited her father's letters and a collection of his poems. In 1913, the Stevenses rented a New York City apartment from sculptor Adolph A. Weinman, who made a bust of Elsie. Her striking profile was later used on Weinman's 1916-1945 Mercury dime design and possibly for the head of the Walking Liberty Half Dollar. In later years Elsie Stevens began to exhibit symptoms of mental illness and the marriage suffered as a result, but the Stevenses never divorced.

After working for several New York law firms from 1904 to 1907, he was hired on January 13, 1908, as a lawyer for the American Bonding Company. By 1914 he had become the vice-president of the New York office of the Equitable Surety Company of St. Louis, Missouri. When this job was abolished as a result of mergers in 1916, he joined the home office of Hartford Accident and Indemnity Company and left New York City to live in Hartford, where he would remain the rest of his life. By 1934, he had been named vice-president of the company. After he won the Pulitzer Prize in 1955, he was offered a faculty position at Harvard but declined since it would have required him to give up his vice-presidency of The Hartford.

From 1922 to 1940, Stevens made numerous visits to Key West, Florida, where he generally lodged at the Casa Marina, a hotel on the Atlantic Ocean. He first visited in January 1922, while on a business trip. "The place is a paradise," he wrote to Elsie, "midsummer weather, the sky brilliantly clear and intensely blue, the sea blue and green beyond what you have ever seen." The influence of Key West upon Stevens's poetry is evident in many of the poems published in his first two collections, Harmonium and Ideas of Order. In February 1935, Stevens encountered the poet Robert Frost at the Casa Marina. The two men argued, and Frost reported that Stevens had been drunk and acted inappropriately. The following year, Stevens allegedly assaulted Ernest Hemingway at a party at the Waddell Avenue home of a mutual acquaintance in Key West. Stevens broke his hand, apparently from hitting Hemingway's jaw, and was repeatedly knocked to the street by Hemingway. Stevens later apologized. In 1940, Stevens made his final trip to Key West. Frost was at the Casa Marina again, and again the two men argued.

In the 1930s and 1940s, he was welcomed as a member of the exclusive set centered on the artistic and literary devotees Barbara and Henry Church.

Stevens may have been baptized a Catholic in April 1955 by Fr. Arthur Hanley, chaplain of St. Francis Hospital in Hartford, Connecticut, where Stevens spent his last days suffering from stomach cancer. This purported deathbed conversion is disputed, particularly by Stevens's daughter, Holly. There is also no record of Stevens' "baptism," although all Roman Catholic priests are required to record the baptisms that they perform. After a brief release from the hospital, Stevens was readmitted and died on August 2, 1955, at the age of 75. He is buried in Hartford's Cedar Hill Cemetery.

Political views
Stevens was politically conservative described by critic William York Tindall as a Republican in the mold of Robert Taft.

Poetry
Stevens is a rare example of a poet whose main output came at a fairly advanced age. His first major publication (four poems from a sequence entitled "Phases" in the November 1914 edition of Poetry magazine) was written at the age of thirty-five, although as an undergraduate at Harvard, Stevens had written poetry and exchanged sonnets with George Santayana, with whom he was close through much of his life. Many of his canonical works were written well after he turned fifty. According to the literary critic Harold Bloom, who called Stevens the "best and most representative" American poet of the time, no Western writer since Sophocles has had such a late flowering of artistic genius.

Stevens's first book of poetry, a volume of rococo inventiveness titled Harmonium, was published in 1923. He produced two more major books of poetry during the 1920s and 1930s and three more in the 1940s. He received the National Book Award in 1951 and 1955.

Imagination and reality
Stevens, whose work was meditative and philosophical, is very much a poet of ideas. "The poem must resist the intelligence / Almost successfully," he wrote. Concerning the relation between consciousness and the world, in Stevens's work "imagination" is not equivalent to consciousness nor is "reality" equivalent to the world as it exists outside our minds. Reality is the product of the imagination as it shapes the world. Because it is constantly changing as we attempt to find imaginatively satisfying ways to perceive the world, reality is an activity, not a static object. We approach reality with a piecemeal understanding, putting together parts of the world in an attempt to make it seem coherent. To make sense of the world is to construct a worldview through an active exercise of the imagination. This is no dry, philosophical activity, but a passionate engagement in finding order and meaning. Thus Stevens would write in The Idea of Order at Key West,
 * Oh! Blessed rage for order, pale Ramon,
 * The maker's rage to order words of the sea,
 * Words of the fragrant portals, dimly-starred,
 * And of ourselves and of our origins,
 * In ghostlier demarcations, keener sounds.

In his book Opus Posthumous, Stevens writes, "After one has abandoned a belief in god, poetry is that essence which takes its place as life's redemption." But as the poet attempts to find a fiction to replace the lost gods, he immediately encounters a problem: a direct knowledge of reality is not possible.

Stevens suggests that we live in the tension between the shapes we take as the world acts upon us and the ideas of order that our imagination imposes upon the world. The world influences us in our most normal activities: "The dress of a woman of Lhassa, / In its place, / Is an invisible element of that place / Made visible." Likewise, were we to place a jar on a hill in Tennessee, we would impose an order onto the landscape.

As Stevens says in his essay "Imagination as Value", "The truth seems to be that we live in concepts of the imagination before the reason has established them." The imagination is the mechanism by which we unconsciously conceptualize the normal patterns of life, while reason is the way we consciously conceptualize these patterns.

The jar is a striking example of an order that does not feel a part of the land, and so seems to violate the existing order: "It did not give of bird or bush, / Like nothing else in Tennessee." Contrast this to the feeling one gets while looking over the water where boats are anchored in darkness, with lanterns hanging on poles, "Arranging, deepening, enchanting night" When the imagination is available to reality and does not try to force itself, reality becomes like a bar of sand onto which the imagination naturally washes and recedes.

The imagination can only conceive of a world for a moment - a particular time, place and culture - and so must continually revise its conception to align with the changing world. And as these worldviews come and go, each person is pulled in his or her normal life between the influence the world has on imagination and the influence imagination has on the way we view the world.

For this reason, the best we can hope for is a well-conceived fiction, satisfying for the moment, but sure to lapse into obsolescence as new imaginings wash over the world.

Supreme fiction
"The imagination loses vitality as it ceases to adhere to what is real. When it adheres to the unreal and intensifies what is unreal, while its first effect may be extraordinary, that effect is the maximum effect that it will ever have."

Throughout his poetic career, Stevens was concerned with the question of what to think about the world now that our old notions of religion no longer suffice. His solution might be summarized by the notion of a Supreme Fiction, an idea that would serve as a fictive replacement for the idea of God, known to be fictive but willfully believed. In this example from the satirical "A High-Toned Old Christian Woman," Stevens plays with the notions of immediately accessible, but ultimately unsatisfying, notions of reality:


 * Poetry is the supreme Fiction, madame.
 * Take the moral law and make a nave of it
 * And from the nave build haunted heaven. Thus,
 * The conscience is converted into palms
 * Like windy citherns, hankering for hymns.
 * We agree in principle. That's clear. But take
 * The opposing law and make a peristyle,
 * And from the peristyle project a masque
 * Beyond the planets. Thus, our bawdiness,
 * Unpurged by epitaph, indulged at last,
 * Is equally converted into palms,
 * Squiggling like saxophones. And palm for palm,
 * Madame, we are where we began.

The saxophones squiggle because, as J. Hillis Miller says of Stevens in his book, Poets of Reality, the theme of universal fluctuation is a constant theme throughout Stevens poetry: "A great many of Stevens poems show an object or group of objects in aimless oscillation or circling movement." In the end, reality remains.

The supreme fiction is that conceptualization of reality that seems to resonate in its rightness, so much so that it seems to have captured, if only for a moment, something actual and real.


 * I am the angel of reality,
 * seen for a moment standing in the door.




 * I am the necessary angel of earth,
 * Since, in my sight, you see the earth again,


 * Cleared of its stiff and stubborn, man-locked set,
 * And, in my hearing, you hear its tragic drone


 * Rise liquidly in liquid lingerings,
 * Like watery words awash;




 * an apparition appareled in


 * Apparels of such lightest look that a turn
 * Of my shoulder and quickly, too quickly, I am gone?

In one of his last poems, "Final Soliloquy of the Interior Paramour", Stevens describes the experience of an idea which satisfies the imagination, "This is, therefore, the intensest rendezvous. / It is in that thought that we collect ourselves, / Out of all the indifferences, into one thing." This one thing is "a light, a power, the miraculous influence" wherein we can forget ourselves, sensing a comforting order, -A knowledge, that which arranged the rendezvous, / within its vital boundary, in the mind."

This knowledge necessarily exists within the mind, since it is an aspect of the imagination which can never attain a direct experience of reality.


 * We say God and the imagination are one . ..
 * How high that highest candle lights the dark.


 * Out of this same light, out of the central mind
 * We make a dwelling in the evening air,
 * In which being there together is enough.

Stevens concludes that God is a human creation, but that feeling of rightness which for so long a time existed with the idea of God may be accessed again. This supreme fiction will be something equally central to our being, but contemporary to our lives, in a way that God can never again be. But with the right idea, we may again find the same sort of solace that we once found in divinity. "[Stevens] finds, too, a definite value in the complete contact with reality. Only, in fact, by this stark knowledge can he attain his own spiritual self that can resist the disintegrating forces of life . . . . Powerful force though the mind is . . . it cannot find the absolutes. Heaven lies about the seeing man in his sensuous apprehension of the world . . .; everything about him is part of the truth."


 * . . . Poetry
 * Exceeding music must take the place
 * Of empty heaven and its hymns,
 * Ourselves in poetry must take their place

In this way, Stevens's poems adopt attitudes that are corollaries to those earlier spiritual longings that persist in the unconscious currents of the imagination. "The poem refreshes life so that we share, / For a moment, the first idea . . . It satisfies / Belief in an immaculate beginning / And sends us, winged by an unconscious will, / To an immaculate end." The "first idea" is that essential reality that stands before all others, that essential truth; but since all knowledge is contingent on its time and place, that supreme fiction will surely be transitory. This is the necessary angel of subjective reality - a reality that must always be qualified - and as such, always misses the mark to some degree - always contains elements of unreality.

Miller summarizes Stevens's position: "Though this dissolving of the self is in one way the end of everything, in another way it is the happy liberation. There are only two entities left now that the gods are dead: man and nature, subject and object. Nature is the physical world, visible, audible, tangible, present to all the senses, and man is consciousness, the nothing which receives nature and transforms it into something unreal . . . ."

The role of poetry
Stevens often writes directly about poetry and its human function. The poet "tries by a peculiar speech to speak / The peculiar potency of the general, / To compound the imagination's Latin with / The lingua franca et jocundissima." Moreover, "The whole race is a poet that writes down / The eccentric propositions of its fate." In a manner reminiscent of Wordsworth, Stevens saw the poet as one with heightened powers, but one who like all ordinary people continually creates and discards cognitive depictions of the world, not in solitude but in solidarity with other men and women.

These cognitive depictions find their outlet and their best and final form as words; and thus Stevens can say, "It is a world of words to the end of it, / In which nothing solid is its solid self." In a poem called "Men Made out of Words," he says: "Life / Consists of propositions about life." Poetry is not about life, it is intimately a part of life. As Stevens wrote elsewhere, "The poem is the cry of its occasion, / Part of the res itself and not about it. / The poet speaks the poem as it is, // Not as it was." Modern poetry is "the poem of the mind in the act of finding / What will suffice."


 * It has to be living, to learn the speech of the place.
 * It has to face the men of the time and to meet
 * The women of the time. It has to think about war
 * And it has to find what will suffice. It has
 * To construct a new stage. It has to be on that stage,
 * And, like an insatiable actor, slowly and
 * With meditation, speak words that in the ear,
 * In the delicatest ear of the mind, repeat,
 * Exactly, that which it wants to hear, at the sound
 * Of which, an invisible audience listens,
 * Not to the play, but to itself, expressed
 * In an emotion as of two people, as of two
 * Emotions becoming one.

His poem An Ordinary Evening in New Haven is a self-conscious digression about the creation of poetry.
 * ''We keep coming back and coming back
 * ''To the real: to the hotel instead of the hymns
 * ''That fall upon it out of the wind. We seek
 * ''The poem of pure reality, untouched
 * ''By trope or deviation, straight to the word,
 * ''Straight to the transfixing object, to the object
 * ''At the exactest point at which it is itself,
 * ''Transfixing by being purely what it is
 * ''A view of New Haven, say, through the certain eye,
 * ''The eye made clear of uncertainty, with the sight
 * ''Of simple seeing, without reflection. We seek
 * ''Nothing beyond reality.

To create a stage is, for Stevens, a metaphor for the need of modern poetry to make its own new arena or realm in which it should be presented and in which it can be understood. Modern poetry is like "an insatiable actor" because it continually must be in "the act of finding what will suffice." Stevens puns on the meaning of "act." In one sense, poetry is an act, learning the speech, meeting the women, facing the men, etc. In another sense, it is a dramatic performance meant to be heard by an audience, as it speaks words that echo in the mind of the listener. The audience is "invisible" in the sense that a poet rarely meets his or her readers. The typical reader picks up a book of poems and reads a poem or two, and the author never sees this happening. The reading of poetry is often a conversation between strangers. In this poem the two people are the actor that is the poem and the audience that is the listener, and their emotions should become "one." The poet should find the words that will speak to the delicatest ear of its modern listeners, echoing what it wants to hear but cannot articulate for itself. The poet, in the act of the poem, finds the sufficing words and for the audience and they allow the listeners to hear what is in their ear, their mind. As a result, the emotions of speaking and listening, of poet as actor and listeners as audience, should become one.

Reputation and influence
From the first, critics and fellow poets praised Stevens. Hart Crane wrote to a friend in 1919, after reading some of the poems that would make up Harmonium, "There is a man whose work makes most of the rest of us quail." In the 1930s, the critic Yvor Winters criticized Stevens as a decadent hedonist but acknowledged his great talent. Beginning in the 1940s, critics such as Randall Jarrell spoke of Stevens as one of the major living American poets, even if they did so (as Jarrell did) with certain reservations about Stevens's work. Stevens's work became even better known after his death. Harold Bloom, Helen Vendler, and Frank Kermode are among the critics who have cemented Stevens's position in the canon as a great poet. Many poets&mdash;James Merrill and Donald Justice most explicitly&mdash;have acknowledged Stevens as a major influence on their work, and his impact may also be seen in John Ashbery, Mark Strand, Jorie Graham, John Hollander, and others.

In 1977 David Hockney authored a book of etchings called "The Blue Guitar: Etchings By David Hockney Who Was Inspired By Wallace Stevens Who Was Inspired By Pablo Picasso". The book included the poetry of Wallace Stevens. The etchings were inspired by and were meant to represent the themes of Stevens's poem, "The Man With The Blue Guitar", which was inspired by a 1903 painting by Pablo Picasso titled "The Old Guitarist". It was published as a portfolio and as a book in spring 1997 by Petersburg Press.

Nick Cave cited the lines "And the waves, the waves were soldiers moving" in his song "We Call Upon the Author". They come from Steven's poem "Dry Loaf". Fellow musician Patti Smith also seems to refer to these lines in her song "Land", in the lines "The waves were coming in like Arabian stallions".

Poetry

 * Harmonium (poetry; includes "Le Monocle de Mon Oncle," "The Comedian as the Letter C," "The Emperor of Ice Cream," "Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird," "Peter Quince at the Clavier," "Sunday Morning," "Sea Surface Full of Clouds," and "In the Clear Season of Grapes"), Knopf, 1923, revised edition, 1931.
 * Ideas of Order (poetry; includes "Farewell to Florida," "The Idea of Order at Key West," "Academic Discourse at Havana," "Like Decorations in a Nigger Cemetery," and "A Postcard from the Volcano"), Alcestis Press, 1935, enlarged edition, Knopf, 1936.
 * Owl's Clover (poetry; also see below), Alcestis Press, 1936.
 * The Man with the Blue Guitar, and Other Poems (poetry; includes "The Man with the Blue Guitar," "A Thought Revolved," and "The Men That Are Falling"), Knopf, 1937.
 * Parts of a World (poetry; includes "The Poems of Our Climate," "The Well Dressed Man with a Beard," and "Examination of the Hero in a Time of War"), Knopf, 1942.
 * Notes Toward a Supreme Fiction (poetry; also see below), Cummington Press, 1942.
 * Esthetique du Mal (poetry; also see below), Cummington Press, 1945.
 * Transport to Summer (poetry; includes "The Pure Good of Theory," "A Word With Jose Rodriguez-Feo," "Description without Place," "The House Was Quiet and the World Was Calm," "Notes Toward a Supreme Fiction," and "Esthetique du Mal"), Knopf, 1947.
 * A Primitive Like an Orb (poetry; also see below), Gotham Book Mart, 1948.
 * The Auroras of Autumn (poetry; includes "The Auroras of Autumn," "Large Red Man Reading," "In a Bad Time," "The Ultimate Poem Is Abstract," "Bouquet of Roses in Sunlight," "An Ordinary Evening in New Haven," and "A Primitive Like an Orb"), Knopf, 1950.
 * Selected Poems, Fortune Press, 1952.
 * Selected Poems, Faber, 1953.
 * The Collected Poems of Wallace Stevens (includes "The Rock," previously unpublished section featuring "The Poem That Took the Place of a Mountain," "A Quiet Normal Life," "Final Soliloquy of the Interior Paramour," "The Rock," "The Planet on the Table," and "Not Ideas about the Thing but the Thing Itself"), Knopf, 1954, reprinted, Random House, 1982.
 * Opus Posthumous (includes Owl's Clover and essays "The Irrational Element in Poetry," "The Whole Man: Perspectives," "Horizons," "Preface to Time of Year," "John Crowe Ransom: Tennessean," and "Adagia"), edited by Samuel French Morse, Knopf, 1957, reprinted, Random House, 1982.
 * Poems by Wallace Stevens, edited by Morse, Vintage Books, 1959.
 * The Palm at the End of the Mind: Selected Poems and a Play by Wallace Stevens, edited by Holly Stevens, Knopf, 1971.
 * Collected Poetry and Prose, Library of America (New York, NY), 1997.
 * Selected Poems, John N. Serio, ed., (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009.

Prose

 * Three Academic Pieces: The Realm of Resemblance, Someone Puts a Pineapple Together, Of Ideal Time and Choice (essays; also see below), Cummington Press, 1947.
 * The Relations between Poetry and Painting (lecture), Museum of Modern Art, 1951.
 * Raoul Duly: A Note (nonfiction), Pierre Beres, 1953.
 * The Necessary Angel: Essays on Reality and the Imagination (essays; includes "The Noble Rider and the Sound of Words," "The Figure of the Youth as Virile Poet," "Effects of Analogy," "The Realm of Resemblance," "Someone Puts a Pineapple Together," and "Of Ideal Time and Choice" from Three Academic Pieces), Faber, 1960.
 * Letters of Wallace Stevens, edited by daughter, Holly Stevens, Knopf, 1966.
 * Secretaries of the Moon: The Letters of Wallace Stevens & Jose Rodriguez Feo, edited by Beverly Coyle and Alan Filreis (1986)
 * Sur plusieurs beaux sujects: Wallace Stevens's Commonplace Book, edited by Milton J. Bates (1989)
 * The Contemplated Spouse: The Letter of Wallace Stevens to Elsie, edited by D.J. Bluont (2006)

Except where noted, bibliographic information courtesy The Poetry Foundation.