W.E.B. Du Bois

William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (February 23, 1868 - August 27, 1963) was an African-American writer, and an intellectual leader as sociologist, historian, civil rights activist, and Pan-Africanist. His poems were published posthumously.

W.E.B. Dubois (1868-1963) in 1918. Photo by C.M. Battey (1873-1927). Courtesy Wikimedia Commons.

Born	William Edward Burghardt Du Bois February 23, 1868(1868-Template:MONTHNUMBER-23) Great Barrington, Massachusetts, United States
Died	August 27, 1963(1963-Template:MONTHNUMBER-27) (aged 95) Accra, Ghana
Occupation	Academic, writer, journalist, sociologist
Alma mater	Fisk University, Harvard University
Spouse(s)	Nina Gomer Du Bois, Shirley Graham Du Bois
Influences Karl Marx
Influenced Bayard Rustin, Cornel West, Roland G. Fryer, Jr., Eric Foner

Life

Overview

Born in Massachusetts, Du Bois graduated from Harvard, where he earned his Ph.D in History, the first African American to earn a doctorate at Harvard. Later he became a professor of history and economics at Atlanta University. As head of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1910, he was founder and editor of the NAACP's journal The Crisis. Du Bois rose to national attention in his opposition of Booker T. Washington's alleged ideas of accommodation with Jim Crow separation between whites and blacks and disfranchisement of blacks in the South, campaigning instead for increased political representation for blacks in order to guarantee civil rights, and the formation of a black intellectual elite who would work for the progress of the African-American race.

Biographer David Levering Lewis wrote, "In the course of his long, turbulent career, W.E.B. Du Bois attempted virtually every possible solution to the problem of 20th-century racism — scholarship, propaganda, integration, national self-determination, human rights, cultural and economic separatism, politics, international communism, expatriation, third world solidarity."

Family

Du Bois's name is sometimes misspelled "DuBois," "du Bois," or "duBois"; the correct spelling separates the 2 syllables and capitalizes each. Although the name is of French origin, Du Bois himself pronounced it "dyoo-boyze", unlike the French "doo-bwah".

Du Bois was born in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, to Alfred Du Bois and Mary Silvina (Burghardt) Du Bois. Burghardt's family was part of the very small free black population of Great Barrington, having long owned land in the state. Their family descended from Dutch and African ancestors. Tom Burghardt, a slave (born in West Africa around 1730) earned his freedom in 1780 by military service during the American Revolution as a private soldier in Captain John Spoor's company. According to Du Bois, several of his maternal ancestors were notably involved in regional history.

Alfred Du Bois, from Haiti, was of French Huguenot and African descent. His grandfather was Dr. James Du Bois of Poughkeepsie, New York. Dr. Du Bois's family was rewarded extensive lands in the Bahamas for its support of King George III during the American Revolution. On Long Cay, Bahamas, James Du Bois fathered several children with slave mistresses. When he returned to New York in 1812, Du Bois brought with him John and Alexander, 2 of his mixed-race sons, to be educated in Connecticut.

After James Du Bois died, his black sons were disowned by his family and forced to give up schooling for work. Alexander became a merchant in New Haven and married Sarah Marsh Lewis, with whom he had several children. In the 1830s Alexander went to Haiti to try to salvage his inheritance. His son Alfred was born there in about 1833. Alexander returned to New Haven without the boy and his mother. Alfred Du Bois and Mary Silvina Burghardt married on February 5, 1867, in Housatonic, Massachusetts.

Youth

Alfred deserted Mary by the time their son William was 2. The boy grew up in Great Barrington, a predominately Anglo-American town. He was very close to his mother. When he was young, Mary suffered a stroke which left her unable to work. The 2 of them moved frequently, surviving on money from family members and Du Bois's after-school jobs. Du Bois believed he could improve their lives through education. Some of the neighborhood whites noticed him, and 1 rented Du Bois and his mother a house in Great Barrington. During these years, Du Bois attended the First Congregational Church of Great Barrington.

Du Bois performed chores and worked odd jobs. He did not feel separate because of his skin color while he was in school. He has suggested that the only times he felt out of place were when out-of-towners visited Great Barrington. One such incident occurred when a white girl who was new in school refused to take one of his "calling cards" during a game; the girl told him she would not accept it because he was black. Du Bois then realized that there would always be a barrier between some whites and non-whites.

Du Bois faced some challenges as the precocious, intellectual, mixed-race son of an impoverished single mother. His intellectual gifts were recognized by many of his teachers, who encouraged him to further his education with classical courses while in high school. His scholastic success led him to believe that he could use his knowledge to empower African Americans.

University education

In 1888 Du Bois earned a degree from Fisk University, a historically black college in Nashville, Tennessee. During the following summer, he managed the Fisk Glee Club, which was employed at a luxury summer resort on Lake Minnetonka in suburban Minneapolis, Minnesota. The resort was a favorite of vacationing wealthy American Southerners and European royalty. In addition to providing entertainment, Du Bois and the other club members worked as waiters and kitchen help at the hotel. The young Du Bois was put off by the drinking, crude behavior, and sexual promiscuity of the rich white guests at the hotel.

Du Bois entered Harvard College in the fall of 1888, having received a $300 scholarship. He earned a bachelor's degree cum laude from Harvard in 1890. In 1892, he received a fellowship from the John F. Slater Fund for the Education of Freedmen to attend the University of Berlin for graduate work. While a student in Berlin, he traveled extensively throughout Europe. He came of age intellectually in the German capital, while studying with some of that nation's most prominent social scientists, including Gustav von Schmoller, Adolph Wagner, and Heinrich von Treitschke.

In 1895, Du Bois became the 1st African American to earn a Ph.D. from Harvard University. After teaching at Wilberforce University in Ohio, he worked at the University of Pennsylvania. He taught while undertaking field research for his study The Philadelphia Negro. Next he moved to Georgia, where he established the Department of Social Work at Atlanta University (now Clark Atlanta University Whitney M. Young school of Social Work). He also taught at The New School in Greenwich Village, New York City.

In 1940, at Atlanta University, Du Bois founded Phylon magazine. In 1946, he wrote The World and Africa: An inquiry into the part that Africa has played in world history. In 1945, he helped organize the historic Fifth Pan-African Conference in Manchester, Great Britain. In total, Du Bois wrote 22 books, including 5 novels. He helped establish 4 academic journals.

Criminology

Du Bois began writing about the sociology of crime in 1897, shortly after receiving his Ph.D. from Harvard (Zuckerman, 2004, p. 2). His first work involving crime, A Program of Social Reform, was shortly followed by a second, The Study of the Negro Problems (Du Bois, 1897; Du Bois, 1898). The first work that involved in-depth criminological study and theorizing was The Philadelphia Negro, in which a large section of the sociological study was devoted to analysis of the black criminal population in Philadelphia (Du Bois, 1899).

Du Bois (1899) set forth three significant parts to his criminology theory. The first was that Negro crime was caused by the strain of the "social revolution" experienced by black Americans as they began to adapt to their new-found freedom and position in the nation. This theory was similar to Durkheim's (1893) Anomie theory, but it applied specifically to the newly freed Negro. Du Bois (1900a, p. 3) credited Emancipation with causing the boom in crime in the black population. He explained, "[T]he appearance of crime among the southern Negroes is a symptom of wrong social conditions--of a stress of life greater than a large part of the community can bear." (Du Bois, 1901b, p. 745). He distinguished between the strains on southern Negroes and those on northern Negroes because the problems of city life in the North were different from those of the Southern rural sharecroppers.

Secondly, Du Bois (1904a) believed that black crime declined as the African-American population moved toward a more equal status with whites. This idea, referred to later as "stratification," was developed in a similar manner later in the twentieth century by Merton in his 1968 structure-strain theory of deviance. In The Philadelphia Negro and later statistical studies, Du Bois found direct correlations between low levels of employment and education and high levels of criminal activity.

Thirdly, Du Bois held that the Talented Tenth or the "exceptional men" of the black race would be the ones to lead the race and save it from its criminal problems (Du Bois, 1903, p. 33). Du Bois saw the evolution of a class system within black American society as necessary to carry out the improvements necessary to reduce crime. (Du Bois, 1903). He set forth a number of solutions to crime that the Talented Tenth had to enact (Du Bois, 1903, p. 2).

He was perhaps the 1st criminologist to combine historical fact with social change and used the combination to postulate his theories. He attributed the crime increase after the Civil War to the "increased complexity of life," competition for jobs in industry (especially with the recent Irish immigrants), and the mass exodus of blacks from the farmland and immigration to cities (Du Bois, 1899). Du Bois (1899, p. 64) states in The Philadelphia Negro:

Naturally then, if men are suddenly transported from one environment to another, the result is lack of harmony with the new conditions; lack of harmony with the new physical surroundings leading to disease and death or modification of physique; lack of harmony with social surroundings leading to crime.

Civil rights activism

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W. E. B. Du Bois in 1904

Template:African American topics sidebar Du Bois was the most prominent intellectual leader and political activist on behalf of African Americans in the first half of the twentieth century. A contemporary of Booker T. Washington, he carried on a dialogue with the educator about segregation, political disfranchisement, and ways to improve African American life. He was labeled "The Father of Pan-Africanism."

Along with Washington, Du Bois helped organize the "Negro exhibition" at the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris. It included Frances Benjamin Johnston's photos of Hampton Institute's black students. The Negro exhibition focused on African Americans' positive contributions to American society.

Du Bois is viewed by many as a modern day prophet. This is highlighted by his "Credo", a prose-poem first published in The Independent in 1904. It was reprinted in Darkwater in 1920. It was written in style similar to a Christian creed and was his statement of faith and vision for change. Credo was widely read and recited.

In 1905, Du Bois, along with Minnesota attorney Fredrick L. McGhee and others, helped found the Niagara Movement with William Monroe Trotter. The Movement championed freedom of speech and criticism, the recognition of the highest and best human training as the monopoly of no caste or race, full male suffrage, a belief in the dignity of labor, and a united effort to realize such ideals under sound leadership.

The alliance between Du Bois and Trotter was, however, short-lived, as they had a dispute over whether or not white people should be included in the organization and in the struggle for civil rights. Believing that they should, in 1909 Du Bois with a group of like-minded supporters founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).

In 1910, Du Bois left Atlanta University to work full-time as Publications Director at the NAACP. He also wrote columns published weekly in many newspapers, including the San Francisco Chronicle as well as the African American Chicago Defender, the Pittsburgh Courier and the New York Amsterdam News. For 25 years, Du Bois worked as editor-in-chief of the NAACP publication, The Crisis, then subtitled A Record of the Darker Races. He commented freely and widely on current events and set the agenda for the fledgling NAACP. The journal's circulation soared from 1,000 in 1910 to more than 100,000 by 1920.

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W. E. B. Du Bois and Mary White Ovington, co-founders of NAACP

Du Bois published Harlem Renaissance writers Langston Hughes and Jean Toomer. He encouraged black fiction, poetry and dramas. As a journal of black thought, the Crisis was initially a monopoly, David Levering Lewis observed. In 1913, Du Bois wrote The Star of Ethiopia, a historical pageant, to promote African-American history and civil rights.

Du Bois thought blacks should seek higher education, preferably liberal arts. He also believed blacks should challenge and question whites on all grounds. Booker T. Washington believed assimilating and fitting into the "American" culture was the best way for blacks to move up in society. While Washington stated that he did not receive any racist insults until his later years, Du Bois said blacks have a "Double-Conscious" mind in which they have to know when to act "white" and when to act "black". Booker T. Washington believed that teaching was a duty, but Du Bois believed it was a calling.

Du Bois became increasingly estranged from Walter Francis White, the executive secretary of the NAACP. He began to question the organization's opposition to all racial segregation. Du Bois thought that this policy undermined those black institutions that did exist. He believed that such institutions should be defended and improved rather than attacked as inferior.

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Du Bois seated with college members of the Beta Chapter of Alpha Phi Alpha at Howard University in 1932

By the 1930s, the NAACP had become more institutional and Du Bois increasingly radical, sometimes at odds with leaders such as Walter White and Roy Wilkins. In 1934, Du Bois left the magazine to return to teaching at Atlanta University, after writing 2 essays published in the Crisis suggesting that black separatism could be a useful economic strategy.

As a member of the Princeton chapter of the NAACP, Albert Einstein corresponded with Du Bois, and in 1946 Einstein called racism "America's worst disease".

During the 1920s, Du Bois engaged in a bitter feud with Marcus Garvey. They disagreed over whether African Americans could be assimilated as equals into American society (the view held by Du Bois). Their dispute descended to personal attacks, sometimes based on ancestry. Du Bois wrote, "Garvey is, without doubt, the most dangerous enemy of the Negro race in America and in the world. He is either a lunatic or a traitor." Garvey described Du Bois as "purely and simply a white man's n*****" and "a little Dutch, a little French, a little Negro ... a mulatto ... a monstrosity."

Du Bois became an early member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity which was established by African Americans and had a civil rights focus.

Religion

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Du Bois circa 1911

Du Bois was involved in religion, studied Baptist churches, and contributed to the sociological study of religion. He believed that the capacity of religion could be either good or evil. In the context of the black community, Du Bois suggested that religion gives people strength and pride; African Americans could derive comfort from one another by sharing their common struggles and experiences. On the other hand, Du Bois contended that religion maintained the status quo of America in regards to racial injustice and class disparity.

Du Bois believed that religious organizations serve as communal centers. In The Philadelphia Negro, Du Bois argued that blacks who attended church went for a social gathering first and religion second. Du Bois said that church "introduces the stranger to the community, it serves as a lyceum, library, and lecture bureau—it is, in fine, the central organ of the organized life of the American Negro."

Susan Jacoby writes that Du Bois was "raised as a liberal New England Congregationalist… contrary to the majority of blacks, who were brought up in the Baptist evangelical tradition". He "became a self-described freethinker in Europe." Returning to the United States in 1894 to teach at Wilberforce University in Ohio, Du Bois' polemical stance on prayer in school and his critical views on the church set him at odds with contemporary Booker T. Washington. In his autobiography, he wrote: "When I became head of a department at Atlanta, the engagement was held up because again I balked at leading in prayer… I flatly refused again to join any church or sign any church creed. …I think the greatest gift of the Soviet Union to modern civilization was the dethronement of the clergy and the refusal to let religion be taught in the public schools."

American Historical Association

In 1909, W.E.B. Du Bois addressed the American Historical Association (AHA) at its annual conference, the first African American to do so. According to David Levering Lewis, "His would be the first and last appearance of an African American on the program until 1940."

In a review of the 2nd volume of Lewis’s biography of Du Bois, Michael R Winston observed that, in understanding American history, one must question "how black Americans developed the psychological stamina and collective social capacity to cope with the sophisticated system of racial domination that white Americans had anchored deeply in law and custom." Winston continued, "Although any reasonable answer is extraordinarily complex, no adequate one can ignore the man (Du Bois) whose genius was for 70 years at the intellectual epicenter of the struggle to destroy white supremacy as public policy and social fact in the United States."

Imperial Japan and Nazi Germany

Du Bois became impressed by the growing strength of Imperial Japan following the Japanese victory in the Russo-Japanese War. He saw the victory of Japan over Tsarist Russia as an example of "colored pride."Template:FACT Hikida Yasuichi ran Japan's "Negro Propaganda Operations." After traveling to the United States to speak with students at Howard University, Scripps College, and Tuskegee University, Yasuichi influenced Du Bois’s opinions of Imperial Japan. In 1936, Yasuichi and the Japanese ambassador arranged a trip to Japan for Du Bois and a small group of academics. The trip was to include stops in Japan, China, and the Soviet Union. The Soviet stop was canceled after Karl Radek, Du Bois’s diplomatic contact, was swept up in Stalin's purges. While on the Chinese leg of the trip, Du Bois commented that the source of Chinese-Japanese enmity was China’s "submission to white aggression and Japan's resistance." He asked the Chinese people to welcome the Japanese as liberators. Du Bois joined a large group of African-American academics who cited the Mukden Incident to justify Japan’s occupation and annexation of the formerly European-held southern Manchuria.

During 1936 Du Bois also visited Nazi Germany. He later noted that he had received more respect from German academics than he had from white American colleagues. On his return to the United States, he voiced his ambivalence about the Nazi regime. While admiring how the Nazis had improved the German economy, he was horrified by their treatment of the Jews, which he described as "an attack on civilization, comparable only to such horrors as the Spanish Inquisition and the African slave trade".

On scientific racism and eugenics

Du Bois was an outspoken opponent of scientific racism. Along with cultural anthropologist Franz Boas, and in the pages of Crisis magazine, and in debates with advocates of a biological basis for white superiority Du Bois opposed the notion that African-Americans are biologically inferior to whites.

Du Bois opposed scientific justifications for racism and he spoke out against the eugenics experiments at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory; he advocated the use of birth control in conjunction with what has been called his "elitist" encouragement of a "talented tenth" among gifted African-Americans.

In 1904, Du Bois wrote that black people show no physical variation from Europeans sufficient to base any theory of essential human difference. In 1910, Du Bois challenged eugenicist opposition to racial mixing and lent his support to racial intermarriage; he said gradations exist within all races: "I believe that there are human stocks with whom it is physically unwise to intermarry, but to think that these stocks are all colored or that there are no such white stocks is unscientific and false."

In his 1932 essay on birth control in Margaret Sanger’s Birth Control Review, Du Bois accepted the conventional wisdom that “the more intelligent class” uses birth control; he wrote that, “The mass of ignorant Negroes still breed carelessly and disastrously, so that the increase among Negroes, even more than the increase among whites, is from that part of the population least intelligent and fit, and least able to rear their children properly.” He suggested that African Americans “learn that among human races and groups, as among vegetables, quality and not mere quantity really counts.”

Communism and activism

Du Bois was one of a number of African-American leaders investigated by the FBI, which claimed in May 1942 that "his writing indicates him to be a socialist". He was chairman of the Peace Information Center at the start of the Korean War, and among the signers of the Stockholm Peace Pledge, which opposed the use of nuclear weapons.

In 1950, at the age of 82, Du Bois ran for U.S. Senator from New York on the American Labor Party ticket and polled a little over 200,000 votes, about 4% of the total. Although he lost, Du Bois remained committed to the progressive labor cause. In 1958, he would join with Trotskyites, ex-Communists and independent radicals in proposing the creation of a united left-wing coalition to challenge for seats in elections for the New York State Senate and Assembly.

On March 16, 1953, upon the death of Joseph Stalin, Du Bois wrote of him in The National Guardian:

Joseph Stalin was a great man; few other men of the 20th century approach his stature. He was simple, calm and courageous. He seldom lost his poise; pondered his problems slowly, made his decisions clearly and firmly; never yielded to ostentation nor coyly refrained from holding his rightful place with dignity. He was the son of a serf but stood calmly before the great without hesitation or nerves. But also—and this was the highest proof of his greatness—he knew the common man, felt his problems, followed his fate.

While Stalin had fallen into disfavor among some of the American Left of that era, and Communism had come to be regarded as "the god that failed" in the eyes of some African-American intellectuals as Ralph Ellison and Richard Wright, Du Bois persisted in his admiration for Stalin. He was frequently challenged for his support of Stalin, particularly after Khrushchev's 1956 "Cult of Personality" speech. Having once, after a 1920s visit to Russia, observed that, "Russia is the victim of a determined propaganda of lies", he remained persistently skeptical of American media reports regarding the USSR; when challenged as to his beliefs on Stalin in 1956, in one instance he conceded that "[Stalin] was probably too cruel; but… he conquered Hitler."

In regards to Soviet intervention in Hungary in 1956, the 88-year-old Du Bois defended the USSR, suggesting that the Hungarian Revolution was the work of "landlords and fascists". Regarding this, one scholar said he was "one of the great pioneers of anti-colonialist scholarship… a headstrong idealist: he idealized Stalinism… He saw what he wished and needed to see, and thus he replicated the hard, domineering consciousness he condemned."

Du Bois visited Communist China during the Great Leap Forward. He was questioned before the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) about his alleged communist sympathies. He was indicted in the United States under the Foreign Agents Registration Act and acquitted for lack of evidence.(Citation needed) In 1959 Du Bois received the Lenin Peace Prize. In 1961, at the age of 93, he joined the Communist Party USA, at a time when it was long past its peak of membership.

Just 40 days before he was assassinated, Martin Luther King, Jr. spoke at an event marking the 100th anniversary of Du Bois' birth, at Carnegie Hall in New York City:

We cannot talk of Dr. Du Bois without recognizing that he was a radical all of his life. Some people would like to ignore the fact that he was a Communist in his later years. It is worth noting that Abraham Lincoln warmly welcomed the support of Karl Marx during the Civil War and corresponded with him freely. In contemporary life, the English speaking world has no difficulty with the fact that Sean O'Casey was a literary giant of the 20th century and a Communist, or that Pablo Neruda is generally considered the greatest living poet though he also served in the Chilean Senate as a Communist. It is time to cease muting the fact that Dr. Du Bois was a genius and chose to be a Communist. Our irrational obsessive anti-communism has led us into too many quagmires to be retained as if it were a mode of scientific thinking....Dr. Du Bois’ greatest virtue was his committed empathy with all the oppressed and his divine dissatisfaction with all forms of injustice.}}

Death

Du Bois was invited to Ghana in 1961 by President Kwame Nkrumah to direct the Encyclopedia Africana, a government production, and a long-held dream of his. When, in 1963, he was refused a new U.S. passport, he and his wife, Shirley Graham Du Bois, became citizens of Ghana. Contrary to some opinions (including David Levering Lewis's Pulitzer Prize winning biography of Du Bois), he never renounced his US citizenship, even when denied a passport to travel to Ghana. Du Bois' health had declined in 1962, and on August 27, 1963, he died in Accra, Ghana at the age of 95, a day before Martin Luther King, Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech. At the March on Washington, Roy Wilkins informed the hundreds of thousands of marchers and called for a moment of silence.

Du Bois is buried at the Du Bois Memorial Centre in Accra.

Private life

Du Bois was married twice: in 1896 to Nina Gomer Du Bois (died 1950) with whom he had 2 children, Burghardt (who died as a baby) and Yolande; and in 1951 to author, playwright, composer, and activist Shirley Graham Du Bois (died 1977) with whom he emigrated to Ghana. The second volume of David Levering Lewis's Pulitzer-winning biography controversially presented evidence for extramarital relationships, describing Du Bois as "a priapic adulterer", though a subsequent biography, Dubois and His Rivals by Raymond Wolters, cast doubt on this, based on the lack of direct corroboration from Du Bois's alleged lovers.

Writing

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Title page of the second edition of The Souls of Black Folk

Du Bois wrote many books, including 3 major autobiographies. Among his most significant works are The Philadelphia Negro (1899), The Souls of Black Folk (1903), John Brown (1909), Black Reconstruction (1935), and Black Folk, Then and Now (1939). His book The Negro (1915) influenced the work of several pioneer Africanist scholars, such as Drusilla Dunjee Houston. and William Leo Hansberry.

During his time in Atlanta, he also saw the overwhelmingly rural agricultural areas of Georgia, where most blacks worked on others' land as laborers and sharecroppers. Reflecting on their lives was part of what he expressed in The Souls of Black Folk, a meditation on the problems of race in American culture, which he defined as the problem of the twentieth century.

In the New York Times review of The Souls of Black Folk, the anonymous book reviewer wrote, "For it is the Jim Crow car, and the fact that he may not smoke a cigar and drink a cup of tea with the white man in the South, that most galls William E. Burghardt Du Bois of the Atlanta College for Negroes."

[I]t is the thought of a negro of Northern education who has lived long among his brethren of the South yet who can not fully feel the meaning of some things which these brethren know by instinct — and which the Southern-bred white knows by a similar instinct: certain things which are by both accepted as facts — not theories — fundamental attitudes of race to race which are the product of conditions extending over centuries, as are the somewhat parallel attitudes of the gentry to the peasantry in other countries.

While some prominent white scholars denied African-American cultural, political and social relevance to American history and civic life, in his epic work Black Reconstruction, Du Bois documented how black people were central figures in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, and also showed how they made alliances with white politicians. He provided evidence to disprove the Dunning School theories of Reconstruction, showing the coalition governments established public education in the South, as well as many needed social service programs. He demonstrated the ways in which Black emancipation — the crux of Reconstruction — promoted a radical restructuring of United States society, as well as how and why the country failed to continue support for civil rights for blacks in the aftermath of Reconstruction. This theme was taken up later and expanded by Eric Foner, Leon F. Litwack, the two leading late twentieth-century scholars of the Reconstruction era, as well as David W. Blight, whose Race and Reunion demonstrated how issues of race were pushed aside in the drive for reconciliation between the North and South in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Recognition

• In 1958 Du Bois was awarded an honorary doctoral degree from the University of Prague. His honorary dissertation was entitled The Negro and Communism.
• In 1959 the USSR awarded him the International Lenin Peace Prize.
• After his death in 1963, the Ghanaian government honored Du Bois with a state funeral, and his coffin was carried on a gun carriage in a ceremony held in Accra. His remains were kept at Fort Christiansborg until 1985, when Ghana's then-leader, J.J. Rawlings, opened Du Bois's former residence as a memorial center, and he was re-interred with the remains of his second wife, Shirley Graham Du Bois. The W.E.B. Du Bois Memorial Centre is located in the Cantonments district of Accra, and visitors can see personal effects and photographs of Du Bois and visit his memorial grave.
• The site of the house where Du Bois grew up in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976.
• In 1992, the United States Postal Service honored W. E. B. Du Bois with his portrait on a postage stamp.
• On October 5, 1994, the main library at the University of Massachusetts - Amherst was named after him.
• The Du Bois center at Northern Arizona University is named after him as well.
• In 1973 there was a residence hall constructed on the campus of Morehouse College named after Du Bois. It is now The W.E.B. Du Bois International House.
• A dormitory was named after Du Bois at the University of Pennsylvania, where he conducted field research for his sociological study "The Philadelphia Negro".
• Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African-American Experience was inspired by and dedicated to W.E.B. Du Bois by its editors Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates, Jr.
• Du Bois lectures are held monthly at Humboldt-University Berlin.
• In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Du Bois on his list of the 100 Greatest African Americans.

Veneration

Du Bois is honored with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) on August 3.

Publications

Template:Pan-African Du Bois wrote and published more than 4,000 articles, essays, and books over the course of his 95-year life. Most of these are out of print and hard to find even in their original publications. No edition of his complete works has yet been published. In 1977, Paul G. Partington published a bibliography of Du Bois's published works, W. E. B. Du Bois: A Bibliography of His Published Writings, Whittier, CA: privately published, 1979 [c. 1977], ISBN 0-9602538-1-5 . A supplement was published in 1984, W. E. B. Du Bois: A Bibliography of His Published Writings—Supplement, Whittier, CA, c. 1984 , 20 pages. The supplement represented Partington’s research in the Du Bois papers owned by the University of Massachusetts Amherst.

Poetry

• Selected Poems. Accra, Ghana: Ghana University Press, c. 1964.
• Creative Writings by W.E.B. Du Bois: A pageant, poems, short stories, and playlets. White Plains, NY: Unipub-Kraus International, 1985.

Plays

• "Haiti," included in Federal Theatre Plays (edited by Pierre De Rohan). Works Progress Administration, 1938.

Novels

• The Quest of the Silver Fleece. Chicago: A.C. McClurg, 1911; reprinted New York: Harlem Moon, 2004.
• Dark Princess: A Romance. New York: Harcourt, 1928.
• The Ordeal of Mansart (first novel in trilogy. New York: Mainstream Publishers, 1957.
• Mansart Builds a School (second novel in trilogy). New York: Mainstream Publishers, 1959.
• Worlds of Color (third novel in trilogy). New York: Mainstream Publishers, 1961.
• The Black Flame (trilogy collection; includes The Ordeal of Mansart, Mansart Builds a School, Worlds of Color). Millwood, NY: Kraus Reprint, 1976.

Non-fiction

• The Suppression of the African Slave-Trade to the United States of America, 1638-1870. New York: Longmans, Green, 1896; reprinted Mineola, NY: Dover, 1999.
• The Conservation of Races. American Negro Academy, 1897.
• The Philadelphia Negro: A Special Study (bound with A Special Report on Domestic Service, by Isobel Eaton). Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press 1899.
• The Souls of Black Folk: Essays and sketches (young adult). Chicago: A.C. McClurg, 1903, reprinted
  • reprinted (with an introduction by David Levering Lewis) New York: Modern Library, 2003.
• The Negro in the South: His Economic Progress in Relation to His Moral and Religious Development (lectures, with Booker T. Washington). Philadelphia, PA: G.W. Jacobs, 1907; reprinted New York: AMS Press, 1973.
• John Brown (biography). Philadelphia: G.W. Jacobs, 1909
  • 2nd revised edition New York: International Publishing, 1974
  • reprinted (with an introduction by David Roediger) New York: Modern Library, 2001.
• The Negro. New York: Holt, 1915; reprinted Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 2002.
• Darkwater: Voices from within the Veil (semiautobiographical). New York: Harcourt, 1920
  • reprinted (with introduction by David Levering Lewis) New York: Washington Square Press, 2004.
• The Gift of Black Folk: The Negroes in the Making of America. Boston: Stratford, 1924
  • reprinted (with an introduction by Edward F. McSweeney) New York: AMS Press, 1971.
• Africa: Its Geography, People, and Products. Haldeman-Julius Publications, 1930
  • reprinted (with an introduction by Herbert Aptheker) Millwood, NY: KTO Press, 1977.
• Africa: Its Place in Modern History. Haldeman-Julius Publications, 1930
  • reprinted and bound with Africa: Its Geography, People and Products. White Plains, NY: Unipub-Kraus International, 1977.
• Black Reconstruction: An Essay toward a History of the Part Which Black Folk Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy in America, 1860-1880. New York: Harcourt, 1935
  • published as Black Reconstruction in America, 1860-1880. New York: Atheneum, 1969.
• Black Folk, Then and Now: An Essay in the History and Sociology of the Negro Race. New York: Holt, 1939; reprinted New York: Octagon Books, 1970.
• Dusk of Dawn: An Essay toward an Autobiography of a Race Concept. New York: Harcourt, 1940
  • reprinted (with an introduction by Irene Diggs) New Brunswick, NY: Transaction Books, 1984.
• Color and Democracy: Colonies and Peace. New York: Harcourt, 1945
  • reprinted (with an introduction by Herbert Aptheker) Millwood, NY: KTO Press, 1975.
• The World and Africa: An Inquiry into the Part Which Africa Has Played in World History. New York: Viking, 1947
  • revised edition, 1965.
• In Battle for Peace: The Story of My Eighty-third Birthday (autobiography). New York: Masses & Mainstream, 1952
  • reprinted (with an introduction by Herbert Aptheker) Millwood, NY: KTO Press, 1976.
• The Autobiography of W.E. Burghardt Du Bois: A Soliloquy on Viewing My Life from the Last Decade of Its First Century (edited by Herbert Aptheker). New York: International Publishers, 1968.
• Black North in 1901: A Social Study. New York: Arno Press (New York, NY), 1969.
• W.E.B. Du Bois Speaks: Speeches and Addresses (edited by Philip S. Foner). New York: Pathfinder Press, 1970.

Collected editions

• An ABC of Color: Selections from Over Half a Century of the Writings of W. E. B. Du Bois. Berlin, Germany: Seven Seas Publishers, 1963.
• The Selected Writings of W.E.B. Du Bois (edited by Walter Wilson). New York: New American Library, 1970.
• W.E.B. Du Bois: A Reader (edited by Meyer Weinberg). New York: Harper, 1970.
• The Seventh Son: The Thoughts and Writings of W.E.B. Du Bois (edited by Julius Lester). New York: Random House, 1971.
• A W.E.B. Du Bois Reader (edited by Andrew G. Paschal). New York: Macmillan, 1971.
• W.E.B. Du Bois: The Crisis Writings (edited by Daniel Walden). New York: Fawcett, 1972.
• The Emerging Thought of W.E.B. Du Bois: Essays and Editorials from The Crisis (edited by Harvey Lee Moon). New York: Simon & Schuster , 1972.
• The Correspondence of W.E.B. Du Bois (edited by Herbert Aptheker). Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press; Volume I: 1877-1934, 1973; Volume II: 1934-1944, 1976; Volume III: 1944-1963, 1978.
• The Education of Black People: Ten Critiques, 1906-1960 (edited by Herbert Aptheker). Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1973; reprinted New York: Monthly Review Press, 2001.
• The Writings of W.E.B. Du Bois (edited by Virginia Hamilton). New York: Crowell, 1975.
• Book Reviews (edited by Herbert Aptheker). Millwood, NY: KTO Press, 1977.
• Prayers for Dark People (edited by Herbert Aptheker). Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1980.
• Writings in Periodicals. White Plains, NY: Unipub-Kraus International, 1985.
• Pamphlets and Leaflets by W.E.B. Du Bois, Unipub-Kraus International (White Plains, NY), 1985.
• Against Racism: Unpublished Essays, Papers, Addresses, 1887-1961 (edited by Herbert Aptheker). Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1985.
• W.E.B. Du Bois on Sociology and the Black Community (edited by Dan S. Greene and Edwin D. Driver). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.
• W.E.B. Du Bois Writings. New York: Library of America, 1987.
• W.E.B. Du Bois: A Reader. New York: Holt, 1995.
• The Oxford W.E.B. Du Bois Reader. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
• The Selected Speeches of W.E.B. Du Bois. New York: Modern Library, 1996.
• Du Bois on Religion (edited by Phil Zuckerman). Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2000.
• The Social Theory of W.E.B. Du Bois (edited and introduction by Phil Zuckerman). Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 2004.

Edited

• Mortality among Negroes in Cities. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press, 1896.
• Social and Physical Condition of Negroes in Cities. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press, 1897.
• Some Efforts of American Negroes for Their Own Social Benefit. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press, 1898.
• The Negro in Business. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press, 1899.
• A Select Bibliography of the American Negro: For General Readers. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press,, 1901.
• The Negro Common School. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press, 1901.
• The Negro Artisan. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press, 1902.
• The Negro Church. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press,, 1903; reprinted Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2003.
• Some Notes on Negro Crime, Particularly in Georgia. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press, 1904.
• A Select Bibliography of the Negro American. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press,, 1905.
• The Health and Physique of the Negro American. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press, 1906.
• Economic Co-operation among Negro Americans. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press, 1907.
• The Negro American Family. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press, 1908.
• Efforts for Social Betterment among Negro Americans. . Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press, 1909.
• The College-Bred Negro American (with Augustus Granville Dill). Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press, 1910.
• The Common School and the Negro American(with Augustus Granville Dill) 1911.
• The Negro American Artisan (with Augustus Granville Dill). Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press, 1912.
• Morals and Manners among Negro Americans (with Augustus Granville Dill). Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press, 1914.
• An Appeal to the World: A Statement on the Denial of Human Rights to Minorities in the Case of Citizens of Negro Descent in the United States of America and an Appeal to the United Nations for Redress. [New York]: 1947.

Except where noted, bibliographical information courtesy the Poetry Foundation.

Audio/video

Maurice Decaul reads "Returning Soldiers" by W.E.B. Du Bois

• Socialism and the American Negro (1960)
• W.E.B. DuBois A Recorded Autobiography, Interview with Moses Asch (1961)
• Every Tone a Testimony (2001)

See also

• List of U.S. poets

References

• David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race, 1868-1919, (Owl Books 1994). Winner of the 1994 Pulitzer Prize for Biography [2], the 1994 Bancroft Prize and the 1994 Francis Parkman Prize.
• David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century 1919-1963, (Owl Books 2001). Covers the second half of the life of W. E. B. Du Bois, charting 44 years of the culture and politics of race in the United States. Winner of the 2001 Pulitzer Prize for Biography [3]
• Eugene Victor Wolfenstein, A Gift of the Spirit: Reading THE SOULS OF BLACK FOLK, NY: Cornell University Press, 2007.
• Emma Gelders Sterne, His Was The Voice, The Life of W. E. B. Du Bois, New York: Crowell-Collier Press, 1971
• Sarah Ann McGill, W. E. B. Du Bois
• Keith Johnson and Elwood Watson, "The W. E. B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington Debate:Effects upon African American Roles in Engineering and Engineering Technology"', Journal of Technology Studies, Fall 2004
• Brown, Theodore M., Fee, and Elizabeth; "William Edward Burghardt-Historian, Social Critic, Activist", American Journal of Public Health, Feb 2003.
• Edward J. Blum. W.E.B. Du Bois, American Prophet. Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007, 288 pp. (Politics and Culture in Modern America).
• W. E. B. Du Bois, American Prophet. Edward J. Blum. 2007.
• "W. E. B. Du Bois Between Worlds: Berlin, Empirical Social Research, and the Race Question." Barrington S. Edwards. Du Bois Review 3:2 (September 2006): 395-424.
• "W. E. B. Du Bois Horizon: Documenting Movements of the Color Line." Susanna M. Ashton. MELUS (Multi-Ethnic Literatures of the United States) 26.4 (Winter 2002): 3-23.
• Reconsidering The Souls of Black Folk. Stanley Crouch and Playthell Benjamin. Running Press, Philadelphia, PA. 2002.
• The Oxford W. E. B. Du Bois Reader. Eric J. Sundquist, ed. Oxford University Press. 1996
• Black and Red: W. E. B. Du Bois and the Afro-American Response to the Cold War, 1944-1963. Gerald Horne. State University of New York Press. 1986.
• The Art and Imagination of W. E. B. Du Bois. Arnold Rampersad. Harvard University Press. 1976.
• Negro Thought in America, 1880-1915: Racial Ideologies in the Age of Booker T. Washington. August Meier. University of Michigan Press. 1963.
• W. E. B. Du Bois: Propagandist of the Negro Protest. Elliott M. Rudwick. New York: Atheneum. 1960.
• W. E. B. Du Bois: Negro Leader in a Time of Crisis. Francis L. Broderick. Stanford University Press. 1959.
• The Souls of Black Folk: One Hundred Years Later. Dolan Hubbard, ed. University of Missouri Press. 2003.
• The Professor and the Pupil: The Politics and Friendship of W.E.B. Du Bois and Paul Robeson. Murali Balaji, Nation Books, 2007.
• The Socialist Analysis of W.E.B. Du Bois. W. D. Wright, Ann Arbor, MI.: University Microfilms Intl' 1985.
• A Small Nation of People: W. E. B. Du Bois and African American Portraits of Progress, by David Levering Lewis and Deborah Willis, HarperCollins, 2005, ISBN 0-06-081756-9.
• In the Shadow of Du Bois: Afro-Modern Political Thought in America. Robert Gooding-Williams. Harvard University Press, 2009.

External links

Poems

• "The Song of the Smoke"
• W.E.B. Dubois 1868-1963 at the Poetry Foundation.

Prose

• Online articles by Du Bois
• The Talented Tenth

Audio / video

• W.E.B Du Bois: a Biography in Four Voices

Books

• Works by W.E.B. Du Bois at Project Gutenberg
• The Souls of Black Folk from American Studies at the University of Virginia.
• W.E.B. Du Bois at Amazon.com
• Works by or about W.E.B. Du Bois in libraries (WorldCat catalog)

About

• Du Bois Lifetime Chronology
• W.E.B. Du Bois at NNDB.
• W.E.B. Du Bois in the New Georgia Encyclopedia.
• W.E.B. Du Bois in the Encyclopædia Britannica
• W.E.B. Du Bois: Innovative activist at Thoughtco
• W.E.B. Du Bois: Online Resources, from the Library of Congress
• FBI File of William E.B. Du Bois
• University Massachusetts Amherst Website